4

3

2

1

Design Experiments

Purposeful planned experiments; systematic testing of model components (variables); prediction of outcomes

Manipulate one or more variables relative to a model; make predictions

Thinking about a single variable in terms of empirical generalizations — conducting experiments to verify or elaborate empirical patterns without a causal model

No purposeful experimentation

Judge Models

Ask whether a model can explain all the data available (and recognize where it falls short); assess a model’s ability to be used to make correct predictions; judges models based upon whether or not they are consistent with what they have experienced or beieve about the world (prior knowledge)

Ask whether a model can explain all the data available (and recognize where it falls short); regularly assess a model’s ability to be used to make correct predictions

Offer/demand data to support individual claims; sometimes assess a model’s ability to be used to make correct predictions

Judge models based upon aesthetic criteria or group dynamics only